Which of the following could be contributing factor to underachievement in mathematics?

The nature of Mathematics itself - its abstract, hierarchical, and language-intensive nature - is a major contributing factor to underachievement. Mathematics builds on prior knowledge so any gap can lead to compounding difficulties. The abstract symbolic representation poses challenges. Gender, socio-cultural background, and innate ability are not legitimate reasons for underachievement; suggesting they are would perpetuate biases. The subject's inherent characteristics, when not addressed through appropriate pedagogy, contribute to underachievement.